xt751c1tg173 https://exploreuk.uky.edu/dips/xt751c1tg173/data/mets.xml   Agricultural Experiment Station, Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Kentucky 1973 journals kaes_research_rprts_17 English University of Kentucky Contact the Special Collections Research Center for information regarding rights and use of this collection. Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station Research Report 17 : December 1973 text Research Report 17 : December 1973 1973 2014 true xt751c1tg173 section xt751c1tg173  I SOME EFFECTS OF RURAL ROAD IMPROVEMENT IN
  APPALACHlA—A CASE STUDY IN THE EASTERN
  KENTUCKY COAL FIELDS
 I Br
  Eldon D. Smith, J. Keith Wilkinson, ond Kurt R. Anschel
 I RESEARCH REPORT I7 ; Mqy 1973 I
 Q University of Kentucky : : College of Agriculture
  Agricultural Experiment Station : : Department of Agricultural Economics
  Lexington
  1

 J x
x * a
’

 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
.~\ continuing issue facing public decision makers in rural areas, and particularly in the /
mountains of liastern Kentucky, is tlie extent to which all-weather roads should be constructed
- to serve people living on unimproved roads. One argument in favor of investing in all—weather
roads is that lack of adequate roads impedes the improvement of the human resources of the
area. lt is possible that residents on these roads are functionally isolated from health services,
education, shopping, and the other activities which are important to developing the capabilities
for adapting to and coping with the demands of the complex social and economic environment of
the contemporary world. The purpose of the research reported here is to determine the extent to
which residence on unimproved roads does, in fact, limit access opportunities, services, and
‘ cultural assets which are available to others.
Pike County, Kentucky, the site of this study is in the coal mining area of Eastern
Kentucky. lts population is predominantly rural-nonfarm and has very low per capita income,
low levels of education, and lower—than-average levels of physical health. Compared with the
population of other areas, a high proportion of families have no employment income.
That distinguishable cultural traits of the people in the region persist and that they had their ‘ .
origins in a period when the mountain area was functionally and geographically isolated from the
rest of the country are not denied. However, the evidence presented in this study shows that, at
present, interaction between the population of the area, including those located in remote
communities accessable only by unimproved roads, and other areas is relatively frequent.
Moreover, the average frequency of travel for all purposes of people of comparable characteristics
and circumstances is only about 15 percent less in areas without improved roads than in those
i with immediate access to paved roads. Significantly, less-frequent extra-neighborhood business
and social contact is found mainly in shopping trips and participation of parents in school-related ,
activities. There is no indication that offspring of persons living in areas with only unimproved
roads are less willing to accept employment in other areas, that their adult offspring have received
j less formal education or that they travel less frequently to areas more than 100 miles distant.
l·`rom these facts it seems reasonable to conclude that expenditures for rural road
improvement must bejustified, if at all, mainly on the basis of direct economic costs and benefits
or on the basis of equitable distribution of public services. There is no indication that lack of
access to all—weather roads has any discernable adverse effect on the development of the human
resources or cultural integration of the area with other parts of the country.
l
O

 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
. We particularly wish to express our gratitude to Dr. C. Milton Coughenour, Department of -·\€k¤
s Sociology, who assisted in the design of this study. Regrettably, Dr. Coughenour has been on
_ leave and has not been able to participate in the analysis; however, he has reviewed this ‘1`¤bi¢
manuscript in draft.
X The assistance of several graduate students who did the enumeration and that of Ying-I lntro»
A Chien who assisted in the computer analysis of the data is gratefully acknowledged.
T We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of the Kentucky Highway Department in Survc
_ providing special tabulations of road mileages, construction costs and maintenance costs without
t » _ which much of this and a companion study could not have been completed. Xleth»
  Charts
  1-me
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Conc
Appe
r -*pp¢
j l 2

 CONTENTS
Pm
)f Acknowledgments ...................................... 2 ./
n
is 'lables (List oi`) ........................................ 4
-[ Introduction ......................................... 5
n Suwey Design ........................................ 6
it
Method of Analysis ..................................... 7
Characteristics of Residents of Communities on Paved Roads and on Unimproved Roads . . 8
Effects of Access to Improved Roads on Economic and Social Participation ........ 8
Recreational, Social, and Shopping Activities ................... 8 _
Medical and Dental Service ............................ 12 S
Extra-Curricular Participation of High School Students .............. 12
Parental Participation in School-Related Activities ................ 14
Services Provided at the Home .......................... 14
Combined Automotive Travel for All Purposes .................. 16
Effects on Educational Attainment and Mobility ...................... 16
Conclusions ......................................... 17
Appendix I .......................................... 23
Appendix II ......................................... 25
3 I i

 = TABLES
Number Page
_ 1 Characteristics of Sample Households, By Place of Residence, 1966 .......... 9
r 2 Frequency of Shopping Activities, Recreational Travel and Organizational Participation
» Travel by Location of Household ............................ ll
i 3 Medical and Dental Service Trips by Location of Household .............. 13
  - 4 Average Annual Frequencies of Visitation by Commercial, and Public Service Agencies
I to Residents, by Location ............................... 15
P , 5 Indicators of Geographic Mobility of Families, by Location of Residence ....... 18 ll"
. ,\pp;r
; i 6 Years of School Completed by Offspring of Sample Heads of Households, by Age, l"’l*“
, Income Class, and Location of Residence ........................ 19 H"‘;;‘
V V \1ll( ll
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r 4 ’

 ¤ , . . `,.. . .. . _ ,_
SOME luI·I·l·.(.IS OI· RURAL ROAD IMPROVEMENI IN APPALACHIA —
9 A CASE S'l`Ul)Y IN THE EASTERN KENTUCKY COAL FIELDS "
by
1 . . . . . .
lzldon I). Smith, j. Keith Wilkinson, and Kurt R. Anschel*
3
Introduction integration is dependent upon economic
5 development" [2; p. 34]. While some may
Several scholars have partially attributed question the extent to which highway
8 the chronically depressed condition of development is responsible for it, a leaflet of
.\ppalachia to functional social and economic The Kentucky Highway Department alludes
isolation from other parts of the country.] to much the same change. It says:
9 llotvever, in the period since most of these
V >lL1(llL'> have been published a variety of "The people of these (four) regions (of ‘
lQtctors has rnotlilied the degree to which Kcmuckylwcrc dlffcrcm m many wayst th"`
} V _ _ _! _, _ I _ bl { I. _' bl ) speech varied, and the way they thought and
l_l‘ "‘; _ ‘ “"l‘ “”"’““ mdl _ _ “ dpi) l“·‘ “· acted set them apart. . . The new system of toll
lelevrsron and a network oi federal atrd state roads from Fulton. . .across the southem
lriglrways are among them. Yet important Section Of lhs SMF to Somers"- · md from
_ _» _ _ » -· _ _ . London to Hazard in the heart of the mountains
sotral and cultural drllerences persist. - - . . ,,
_ ___>_ _ _ _ spells the end of provincialrsm in Kentucky
\\hrle l·or‘tl rn his "lhe Passing ol [4]_
l’rovinci;tlism" provides evidence that the
basic attitudes and aspirations for economic Whatever may be the merit of ‘
achievement, education, and the like are not inter-re ional hi hwav construction, it is no
S S .
areatly different on the average from those of longer a major issue. The network is largely
people in other areas, he recognizes the complete or in process of construction.
cultural differences of mountain people which Hence, if road deficiencies exist which limit
t others have observed. He attributes these the development of the region they are in the
tlill`er‘etrces to economic circumstances and local or secondary road systems.
states that "econornic development within the This study is based on data collected in
region. . . (is) not so much dependent upon the coal field region of Eastern Kentucky.
their cultural integration as their cultural Since there is very little agriculture in this
region, the usual justification of expenditures
"“"‘_·—*·; for improved farm—to—market roads does not
} [ applv. In addition, most of the counties in
`°¤‘<>¢Ss=·r of Agricultural Economics; Graduate Research · i · · Y ,
·‘\SSlSlant; and Associate Professor of Agricultural Eco- [hl? rcglon are I-Clatlicly pO_Or and hafc Very
;‘°mi°$» ’°SP=¢¤*¤l>’- This rvpcrt is based in part on Mr. limited tax revenues in relation to their needs
muns°n°MaSl"°D°g“° ll`°s's‘ for improved public services of almost all
1 » d ` e ent
ExZimpl€S HIC \\'I'lIlI`lg$ Oli 'I`, \Y, SCl`\Lll[Z   V. \Y. Ruttan tT’P('S'         m S
l5l,.l-Weller [3],l·;.D.smtth [i1],;ma many others, must be scrutinized very carefully to
5 .
i
l

 ` 6
T _ , determine whether the effects of road because of deficient health of "mental ol rni
i i i i llll}Dl`O\'Clll¤3lll on the largely nonfarm abilities,"3 as compared with 4I percent for wml
    population of rural areas are important or the 3 major urban areas and 45 percent for lll<' lil
i i unimportant to the welfare of the present the state. Rejections for "mental ability" prot
i ' population of the area and succeeding deficiencies were 18 percent for Appalachitur under
; t generations. counties as compared with only 6 percent for tleelrr
t P The objective ofacompanion study is to the urban counties and 12 percent for the in
  r · estimate the direct economic costs and state.;} under
    i T T benefits of road improvement to people who '1`he recognition of these deficiencies in the c
  _ » do not at present have access to improved these and other depressed rural areas appears high
  _ i T 1`021dS [lll . However, in this study the to have been responsible for the gradual shift l`V***"i
_   i T i emphasis is on the effects of road in federal, state, and local program emphases Ulf “
  _ _ improvements on the human resources of the toward improvement of educational, health, t
  i . area. Thus, attention is centered on selected and related public services. Therefore, in ‘°m°'i
  i ` activities and the utilization of selected evaluating the importance of road l'*"“l‘_
  services such as medical care and education. improvements a key issue is whether the lack Y" bl
  i i _ Those selected are ones which are either of improved roads affects the availability of in .r r
i * believed to be important in themselves or are such services to an important segment of ibm
  , i indicative of other aspects which are population. .1 lea
L i important in developing the capabilities of and
  l ` i residents of these areas to cope with the Pll*“"
?   l demands of a complex contemporary social Survey Design ”~*mP
  ` _   ‘ » Zuid economic environment, Some of the was l
  ? 1 questions to be considered relate to whether For all practical purposes commercial md U
j i g residence on unimproved roads functionally agriculture has disappeared from the coal field struct
j   . isolates the affected residents from (a) access counties. In 1970 about 97 percent of the Sump
` to important public and private services, and rural population was classified as "nonfarm." °l*“°_
Q ' i (b) from cultural and educational Commercial agriculture has never been the SU-ful
i i opportunities.2 Of particular importance are predominant source of income in this area. ln build
i . i ` the effects of this environmental factor on recent decades the area has been heavily dem"
l ' . educational attainment and mobility of the dependent upon coal mining and, in the early ucl" l
population. years of the century, upon timber industries mlm
T i Our emphasis on human resources and for income and employment. The substitution
j A their development is a result of the strong
E - 1 evidence that the Appalachian region of T""
` T Kentucky has been seriously disadvantaged in _..;.__... s_
- K this regard. About 50 percent of the men  
r Z · examined for possible military service by the Bwimiai iibiiiiy was miiiiiiy measured by thc Aimed purse, PSD.
i ~ . S€l€Cfl\’C Service in the Appalachian Counties Classificzrtioin Test, a written examination, tcstinghprimgrrily  
Of Esstsm Kentucky in 1969 Wm rsisctsd EQZZLHLS1`§`,g`§Ii§E.rF0".;rZlxitliilonslilili pr§?$$Zir`ga§Z)ili  
ence. The "mental ability" term is quoted directly from '“““l
Selective Service documents. for '
Z closel
l 4Per capita expenditures for education in Appalachian 6
; i L_____;—;; coal field counties of Kentucky were about 92 percent of SUUN
‘ the state average and 68 pcrccnt of the national averagv, WAYS
I 2 _ according to the 1967 Census of Governments. Data Gu for Ci
In subsequent references to unrmproved roads we will refer Selective Service rcjccuuris are from unpublished uucmrll
i t° uprimitlycn or iiunimpmvcdii as Classifisd bY the documents supplied by the Kentucky Selective Scrvicv fpm
i   i Kentucky highway Departmentameaning not graded,drain- gystcrrr Urban Centers refer to Jefferson, [<`ayc[[g’ and pom
  i Cd, Of 3Itlf1C21llY Suffacéd. Kenton and Campbell Counties-

 7
Ll of machinery for labor in coal mining in the useable questionnaires were obtained in the
{ 1910’s and l95U’s and the earlier decline of sample of households located on unimproved
{ the timber industry left the area with severe roads. Ninety-three were obtained from those
»· pr oble in s o f unemployment and located on paved roads. Three additional
1, under-employment. Despite a 22 percent families had sufficient farm income to be /
{ decline in population in the preceding decade, classified by the Census as part—time or
C in l 9 60 m e dian rates ol male full-time farmers and were excluded from the
under-employ ment were about 29 percent in analysis as being atypical.
,, the coal lield counties, nearly three times as
S high as for all Illinois counties.5 For these
I reasons ;uid others, the study was confined to Method of Analysis
S the coal mining area.
{ l’ike County has a substantial population The fu ndamental method for
., center and about 600 miles of unimproved determining the effects of living on an
j ro.itl.b Iwo populationseone with residence unimprovcd road is to compare the frequency
{ on bituminotis all-weatliei roads and located of the households’ participation in various
{ in .t radius lt} to 15 road miles from Pikeville activities and educational attainment and
{ ibut within the county) and the other located mobility of their children. However, simple
at least one-half mile from an all-weather road comparison would not provide a valid ‘
and between 5 and 15 miles from indication of the effect of road improvements
Pikeville —were distinguished and randomly (or failure to make them) on the residents of
sampled.’ .\ proportional sampling scheme the area. The reason for this is that the
was followed in which sample segments were populations of the two areas are different in
rl laid out on a highway map showing residential age and educational composition, income, and
j structures. A proportional, two-stage random availability of automobile transportation.
B sample was drawn. Segments of a given size Therefore, any differences observed by direct
· class (number of residences) were the basis of comparison might be caused by either their r
2 stratification. Replacements were drawn when location as such, differences in population
, buildings shown on the maps were vacant or composition, income, transportation
. destroyed. In this area of declining population availability or some combination of these.
. new structures not shown on maps were very To adjust for these differences in the
S infrequent and were ignored. liighty-seven populations, estimates of what the average
I difference in frequencies between the two
groups would be if they were similar in all
~—,---- ..4» ....».--~- other relevant respects exctgpt the lOC&IiOI1 of
their home were derived. This "Adjusted .
JSOUICUX fl7l(Z’4`FL'77IplU}'7Ii¢.’lll E.\IlHl»dIL’A by L`()llIIf;\', Lfnfffd _...m—.-.-i——-·-———
Sltitcs 1S*ti(t, Agricultural Iiconoinic Report No. 166, ERS, 8 _
s llSD·\. Washingttm_ D tj,_ mid it $_ (j,»,i,iiq (;Vr‘P(,pii[a;,On Separate regressions were computed for pavedroads and
y' 1970- 1"llf ll\C ptctlse statistical definition of undcp u¥lltTlpl’O\'€d road f€S1Cl€l”lIS [O g€1i\€I'3I€ TCQTCSSIOII coeffi-
~l Cmployment used in the former publication see P. l, "Pw- Clcms “hlCh Could bs used to csumatc the effect of Cach
- 'i€‘°¤~· ¤*—~¤*>‘ Mm **’5i’··l96°- cm sam,. mms ofthe two groups. This procedure is
7 simply an expedient of conservatism in estimating the
{ "llie 15-nnle upper limit was established to eliminate the difference attributable to the·road factor, itself. The {
Possible influence of other county seat communities. regression statistics are all shown in Appendix Table 1.  
g i
i

 ’ l 8
` V V Difference Between Means" is shown for each Effects of Access to Improved Roads
  ` activity which was analyzed in the final on Economic and Social Participation
l A column of Tables 2, 3, and 4. No such
. · I estimates were made if the groups were No measure of native abilities has yet L2-;
i I similar initially. been developed which totally eliminates the
  I effects of environmental factors. Further, it
  l was not feasible to administer the existing
  ‘ ; Characteristics of Residents of standardized ability measures to the persons
  l` Communities on Paved Roads and included in the sample. Therefore, in the ———
  t · on Unimproved Roads absence of evidence to the contrary, we will l
  ‘ , assume that differences in the behavior of the
`   The data shown in Table I indicate that two groups being compared are a result of g
  I `_ the nonfarm population of this area is unusual environmental influences such as cultural
l ` in several respects. In general, the influences, family life, social and educational 3
  — l outrnigration and return migration process opportunities or the physical influence of
    l which has reduced the population of the coal living in a situation in which communication
    ‘ field area (Census Economic Area 9) by 33 and ease of travel are determined by access to l
    I percent in the past two decades has left a improved roads. _
  l · residual population of families with relatively D
l Q old heads of households.9 Moreover, a high 6
l   I I proportion have relatively little education and Recreational, Social, and Shopping Activities
  i I l most have quite low incomes. Agriculture
l   l contributes very little to total income, and a The stated purpose of an activity may or
i . » high proportion of families are totally may not denote its effects on the individual 7
. · dependent on non-employment sources of who engages in it. The variety of personal
“ I income, a predominant proportion of which experiences to which individuals, especially
· receive either private or Social Security the young, are exposed are generally 8
A retirement benefits. Despite the high average recognized to have potential indirect effects
l _» age of household heads, a majority have on their capabilities for dealing with the
  · school age children in their households. complexities of modern living and on their
  ’ The main distinguishing features of the adaptability to new and unfamiliar situations. 9
· l residents Ofareas with only unimproved roads FTOUI H purely eeonomie point of view.
  l arg hjgher-thah-aVemge age of hOuS€hOld beyond a certain minimum level additional lll
§ heads, lower educational levels, a higher ShOPP@¤g lllps may bs fcdlllldflllh Ycl lll
. . proportion with HO employment income, and shopping trips children andvyoung adults are ;
z I distinctly lower average levels of total income Often exposed lo fl Vflllcly Ol l_ll_flll€nCl?S "'l“°l‘
l · , from all Sources, lll’378 lower than those create an awareness of possibilities of careers,
living On paved roads. cultural interests, business opportunities, and
° the like which may have profound effects on
their attitudes and aspirations. Shopping trips
_ are both business and social events. In
  addition, the fact that an individual finds it
l __ feasible to make more shopping OT
l recreational trips suggests that he is also
` 9See Sanders [12] and Weideman {13] for analyses of the better able to avail hlmsclf Oli vllllllally zlll
2 reasons for and selectivity of return migration. available public S€I'VlC€S WlllCll are impoftalll
,   l

 9
Table 1
Characteristics of Sample Households, by Place of Residence, 1966
rt '_"`—"_`_—;—__  f
P Place of Residence
it Characteristic _
g On Paved On Unimproved
m Road Road .
.e ·r·"—""""""*""_""‘—"""—‘_—*·—·———···—············———··········‘—’
H l Average age of head, years 50.1 54.4
IC
N 2 Average years school completed 7.0 6.2
al
M 3 Average number of persons per
j household 3.7 3.8
ill
.o 4 Percent with children under 18 years 63.0 50.0
5 Percent with no employment income 35.0 46.0 `
6 Percent with no employment income
Q receiving Social Security or
retirement income 97.0 88.0
n
ul 7 Average annual income of household
A all sources $4,660.00 $3,282.00
h
h- 8 Average combined value of cash farm
U income and home—produced foods at
N valued retail prices S 150.00 S 263.00
in 9 Pro ortion of families ownin
is p . g
V automobiles 85 64
gl 10 Total number of sample respondents 93 87
w
rc ‘““""—‘_""""‘——__—_"_"_"‘__‘“"“”"""”""“""'"‘”`“"'“"”""_"""-"`
zh
s,
id
in
ps
In
in
or
so
Ml
nt
5
i

 A 10
. A A i to his physical and social well—being. In other compared with 1.7 miles.1O
g · words, data on these activities serve as Whilc the f¤`¢q¤¢¤¢i¢S were sig“iiieu“iiY T
T jndrcrrrorg Or Sworn] other Opportunities different, there is reason to question whether
Q which could have an important bearing on the iiic iiigiiiy iicqiiciicli icpiicsciiis Ciiiifiii im
i I development of the humaii I-eseuree ee0¤<>m1€ 0Y S<>g¤1?A{ivA¤¤t¤gc. lheie country
E . . . ‘ t ‘t‘ I`.
T potentials of those affected. Data on the Stores are usud Y lgi COS R Ming um 5
g ~ . . . Moreover, although they serve as
g frequencies of shopping and recreational , . .
Q T. · T . . . . ( neighborhood gathering places for
3 participation are presented in Table 2. . . . . .A .
Q U f 1 _ _ f_ d_ff_ I conversation and other informal socializing,
T · A _ n Ormndtc 5* it H 3`iriy 1 iCi1 _iO the local nature of the store clientele and its
e   T mmiprei dm On Shcippmg iifmimACS‘ neighborhood location limits the extent to
  r j Sh<>i>i>1¤s msludes wh mawr Sh<>i>r¤¤s mrs which it can contribute to the broadening of r
l · Wiieii siiPPiies Oi Smeeries {OY 4 week OY more interests and social perspectives, and the
  21I€ pu1‘ChaS€Cl Of when clothing and other development of tastes, folkways and social
  . A A major purchases are made, as well as so—called skills demanded by a modern urban-industrial
  E y . convenience shopping for small items such as society. y
I l a {Org Of brgad Of 3 quart Of mi]k_ 1\·1uCh of There were no significant differences in .
i T _ _ i the convenience shopping takes place at small iieqiie“eY of mlis iOi` Aspeeiiiiei ieei`eiiiii"i _
·· _ i Country Smres which abound in the mul sucfg as moxgieiland athleticheveqts. ln fact, thtA
i A A areas Ot Appa1aChmA MOEOVCIA H hlgh resi ents o t e areas   ony ummproxtt I
- z . . roads appeared to participate somewhat more ·
T r t proportion of this was reportedly done bv . . . T
i . , _ ‘ in this type of recreation once allowance was
> . s walking to the stores, especially among the . . .
· ~ f _1_ 1_ _ d d h h made for differences in incomes. N
Q l mules wmgfm pave me S W crc SUL Trips specifically to visit friends or gi
i T l stores are relatively numerous. In any event, relatives (rtsocial rccrcationw) were 2
i the iiisiiiiciioii beiwccii iiifgiiiaiii Shopping significantly less frequent among the families
. i iiilis and iieeiweiiieiiee siiOPPiii8” is living on unimproved roads than those living
necessarily somewhat arbitrary or judgmental gp paved rO;3_d5_ However, this was
. E i whether the distinction is made by the survey attributable in part to differences in ages of
; i . respondent or by the analyst. The criteria heads of households. When adjustment was
T employed are noted in footnotes to Table 2. made to allow for this difference, the
i A From Table 2 it is obvious that the remaining "adjusted" difference was not
. residents of the areas without improved roads significant.
I made significantly fewer trips for "regular" Non-church organizational participation
T shopping purposes than those living on paved was also not significantly different in the two
l roads. The remaining difference after groups.i1
· adjusting for the small difference in average
A T . number of persons per household is highly
i significant statistically.
A regression analysis of convenience 10
h . r d b , Information on the distance to the nearest country st0¥€,
E S Opplng was not md C ccausc 3   as distinguished from the one patronized, was not col-
v proportion of this was done by walking. l=¤¤¢d-
y T However, the much more frequent rlch h d h
. . . . . urc organization participation was not include int €
i COHVSHIEHCC   In the grOup l1AV1ng On analysis because Cl'\\1I'Cl`ICS have q\.1ltC VB.\'lCd pfOgTHm$·
i paved I`O3.dS IS probably partly explained by From observation, we judge that the church programs
, the much ShOI.t€I. average distance to the available in the two groups are quite dissimilar. This mak¢S
A ` A _ A A lTl[€I`pl.'C[3.tlOl'l of dlffCl`€l"lC€S [Il 2I.VCl`8gC fI`CqU€K`lCY of T
    COHVCHISDCC outlets p&tI‘OH1Z€(l, 0.68 m1l€S as participation virtually meaningless.
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 1 12
L , . i From the evidence that we have two groups is very low. Well below half of the
j , » conclusions may be drawn: (a) the average families in both groups, especially the ones on
5 ( frequency of contacts for shopping, unimproved roads, visited a dentist one or
1 ( 1 recreation and organizational participation, more times during the previous year despite
i while somewhat lower in the communities on the fact that a substantial majority (56
  unimproved roads, is still quite high, or an percent of isolated area households and 61
i average of -1.5 times per week compared with percent of non—isolated households) had
  ~ 1 V 6.9 for those living on paved roads, and (b) children of school age or below.12
  1 s i that the only significant difference is in the
  . 1 frequency of shopping trips, which, of course,
  1 i comprise the predominant reason for contacts Extra-Curricular Participation of High T,
( 1 outside the neighborhood other than children School Students E
  · attending school. lf one ignores the 6
l difficult-to-interpret convenience shopping Extra-curricular activities are usually  
  activity, which is predominantly an regarded as important socializing and I
  1 i ~ intra-neighborhood activity, it is clear that the attitude-shaping elements of high school  
  ( T 1 neighborhoods without improved roads are programs. Many of them require participation Z
  (   not greatly disadvantaged in terms of access in after—school hours, often requiring the .3
i * - ( to the aggregate of recreational, social, student to miss his bus and return home by  
ig I _ organizational and shopping contacts outside automobile. Thus, the student from the more  
  j the immediate neighborhood. inaccessable neighborhood may find it T
, E inconvenient and difficult to participate 5
g L ` because of the location of his home, and ’°  
    ) Medical and Dental Service because his more isolated, low—income ° ,2  
_   environment may provide an inferior   f`
T ~ ( Although families living on paved roads opportunity to develop basic social and T 8
y made more trips for medical and dental physical skills required for participation in the  
~ services, the difference was an average of only more prestigious and attractive activities.  
( _ one doctor’s office visit per family annually The evidence o